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Religion in
General
Before the
Communist Revolution, a
number of religious and philosophical systems were practiced in China.
Traditionally Taoism and Confucianism provided ethical guides to the
proper behavior of individuals and officials. Both of these systems
originated in China
during the so-called Golden Age of Chinese thought, several centuries
before the beginning of the Christian era. Taoism sought to promote the
inner peace of individuals and harmony with their surroundings.
Confucianism, based on the teachings and writings of the philosopher
Confucius, is an ethical system that sought to teach the proper way for
all people to behave in society. Each relationship--husband-wife,
parents-children, ruler-subjects--involved a set of obligations which,
if upheld, would lead to a just and harmonious society. Following his
teachings would also promote a stable, lasting government.
Buddhism, which came to China
from India
as early as the 1st century AD, was a more conventional religion. Its
followers attended occasional services, practiced rituals, and
supported a temple on a regular basis. It has been estimated that more
than 68 million Chinese still consider themselves Buddhists, though it
is unlikely that they practice the religion regularly (See Buddhism).
Prior to 1949, practices that may best be called folk religions were
common throughout China.
Although they incorporated elements of Buddhism and, especially,
Taoism, these religions were usually local, often based on local gods,
and served the local people.
Christian
missionaries have been active in China
since Roman Catholics belonging to the Jesuit order arrived in the
early 17th century. Protestant missionaries first appeared in the early
19th century. All the Christian missionaries had difficulty converting
the Chinese because Christianity was associated in the popular mind
with Western imperialism. By 1949 there were only 3 or 4 million
Christians in China, less than 1 percent of the total population. Islam
came to China mainly from Central Asia, where it was practiced by many
of the Turkic peoples. Today there are believed to be more than 4
million Chinese Muslims. One autonomous region, Ningxia Huizu, has been
designated for Islamic adherents.
The
Communists
have discouraged religious practices, which they consider
anti-socialist. Many temples and churches have been closed and their
property taken. During the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution (or
simply the Cultural Revolution), a mass movement that lasted officially
from 1966 to 1977, conditions were especially difficult, and religious
practitioners were persecuted. The situation eased after 1977. A number
of Buddhist temples were allowed to reopen. Worship services among
Christians were permitted once again, and it is believed that as many
as 2 million Christians are practicing their faith in China.
The Chinese government is cautious about all religious activity,
especially if it happens to involve foreign people in any way.
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of page
The
Age of Philosophies
*CONFUCIANISM
CONFUCIUS
is a latinized form of the honorific title K'ung-fu-tzu (Master K'ung),
given to a wandering scholar from the state of Lu in Shandong Province
in northeastern China. Although little known in his lifetime, Confucius
was revered as the greatest of sages throughout most of China's
history. His teaching, Confucianism, was the state teaching from the
beginning of the Han Dynasty in 202 BC to the end of the imperial
period in 1911.
Disturbed by constant warfare
among the states, Confucius
taught that most of the ills of society happened because people forgot
their stations in life and rulers lost virtue. He advocated a return to
the golden antiquity of the emperors Yao and Shun, when rulers were
virtuous and people knew their places. Therefore, Confucius' primary
concern lay in social relations, proper conduct, and social harmony.
Confucius
defined five cardinal relationships: between ruler and ruled, between
husband and wife, between parents and children, between older and
younger brothers, and between friends. Except for the last case, all of
the defined relationships are between superiors and inferiors. He
emphasized the complete obedience and loyalty of the inferior to the
superior but also mentioned the benevolence of the superior to the
inferior. The ideal Confucian family was an extended one of three or
four generations, in which authority rested with the elderly male
members. Filial piety (obedience to parents) was one of the most
important virtues emphasized by later Confucians.
Confucius
reportedly spent his last years editing and completing some of the
books that came to be known as Five Classics. These include the
`Classic of Poetry', `Classic of History', `Spring and Autumn Annals',
`Record of Rites', and `Classic of Changes', or `I Ching'. Memorized by
scholars for generations in China,
these books and four other works, including the `Analects', a
compilation of Confucian teachings, were the subjects of civil service
examinations for over 2,000 years. (See Confucius)
Confucianism
commanded a greater following some 200 years later, during the time of
Mencius, or Meng-tzu (371-289 BC). He was second only to Confucius
himself in shaping Confucianism. His three main tenets were the basic
good nature of human beings, the notion of society with a distinct
distribution of functions, and the ruler's obligation to the people. On
the last point, Mencius elaborated on the concept of the mandate of
heaven, which allows that rulers lose support of heaven when they cease
to be virtuous. The concept served as the basis of revolts in China and
the succession of new rulers.
The
`Meng-tzu', meaning "Master Meng," was written by the philosopher
Mencius (a Latinized form of the name Meng-tzu) in the 4th century BC.
The work earned for its author the title of "second sage" in China.
The book deals with government and asserts that the welfare of the
people comes before all else. When a king no longer is good to the
people, he should be removed--by revolution if necessary. Mencius, like
Confucius,
declared that filial piety was the foundation of society. One unusual
doctrine that Mencius supported was that of the natural goodness of
mankind, for which he found proof in the natural love children have for
their parents.
Two other philosophies that
have had an
enduring influence on Chinese thought are Taoism and Legalism. Taoism
gave the Chinese an alternative to Confucianism--passivity and escape
to nature--while Legalism provided the Chinese state with one of its
basic doctrines.
*TAOISM
In
the
Chinese language the word tao means "way," indicating a way of thought
or life. There have been several such ways in China's long history,
including Confucianism and Buddhism. In about the 6th century BC, under
the influence of ideas credited to a man named Lao-tzu, Taoism became
"the way". like Confucianism, it has influenced every aspect of Chinese
culture.
Taoism
began as a complex system of philosophical thought that could be
indulged in by only a few individuals. In later centuries it emerged,
perhaps under the influence of Buddhism, as a communal religion. It
later evolved as a popular folk religion.
Philosophical
Taoism
speaks of a permanent Tao in the way that some Western religions speak
of God. The Tao is considered unnamed and unknowable, the essential
unifying element of all that is. Everything is basically one despite
the appearance of differences. Because all is one, matters of good and
evil and of true or false, as well as differing opinions, can only
arise when people lose sight of the oneness and think that their
private beliefs are absolutely true. This can be likened to a person
looking out a small window and thinking he sees the whole world, when
all he sees is one small portion of it. Because all is one, life and
death merge into each other as do the seasons of the year. They are not
in opposition to one another but are only two aspects of a single
reality. The life of the individual comes from the one and goes back
into it.
The
goal of life for a Taoist is to cultivate a mystical relationship to
the Tao. Adherents therefore avoid dispersing their energies through
the pursuit of wealth, power, or knowledge. By shunning every earthly
distraction, the Taoist is able to concentrate on life itself. The
longer the adherent's life, the more saintly the person is presumed to
have become. Eventually the hope is to become immortal.
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Some
people believe that only one man, Lao-tzu, wrote the most translated
work in all the literature of China, the `Lao-Tzu' (also called `Tao-te
Ching'). The book is the earliest document in the history of Taoism
("the Way"), one of the major philosophical-religious traditions that,
along with Confucianism, has shaped Chinese life and thought for more
than 2,000 years. It is a viewpoint that emphasizes individuality,
freedom, simplicity, mysticism, and naturalness. (See Confucius)
Knowledge
of Lao-tzu is so scarce that only legends remain. His earliest
biographer, who wrote in about 100 BC, relates that Lao-tzu lived in
the district of Hu in present-day Henan Province during the Chou
Dynasty (1122-221 BC). Presumably he worked in astrology and divination
at the court of the emperor. The biographer tells of a meeting of
Lao-tzu with the younger Confucius, which would mean Lao-tzu lived in
about 500 BC. Another story says that he left China
during the decline of the Chou Dynasty, and on his way west wrote the
`Tao-te Ching', after which he disappeared. He was worshiped as an
Imperial ancestor during the T'ang Dynasty (618-907). Scholars today
believe that the book cannot have been written by one man. Some of the
sayings in it may date from the time of Confucius,
while others are from a later period. It is possible that the name
Lao-tzu represents a type of scholar and wise man, rather than one
individual.
`Tao-te Ching' The `Tao-te
Ching',
meaning "Classic of the Way of Power," is one of the great works of
ancient China not included among the Confucian Classics. The presumed
author, Lao-tzu, is considered to be the founder of Taoism. He may have
been alive at the same time as Confucius
but older. The book is not only significant philosophically, but it is
also one of the most sacred scriptures of the Taoist religion. (See
Lao-tzu)
CHUANG-TZU (4th
century BC)
Chinese
philosopher, author, and teacher; classic work bears his name;
influential in development of Chinese philosophy and religious thought;
interpreted Taoism (from tao, "way") differently from Lao-tzu;
Chuang-tzu taught that wise people accept the ebb and flow of life
without attempting to challenge it; true enlightenment involves freeing
oneself of traditions and personal goals that stand in the way of the
mysterious, all-encompassing Tao.
Communal
religious Taoism
is quite distinct from its philosophical counterpart. It emphasizes
moral teachings and collective ceremonies. Good moral conduct is
rewarded with health and long life, while bad conduct results in
disease, death, and suffering in the afterlife. There is an array of
gods who are administrators of the universe, of which they are a part.
From these gods come revelations of sacred texts. There is an order of
married priests who live in the communities they serve and perform
exorcisms and complex rituals.
Folk religion
Taoism is part of the
everyday lives of the people. The gods are intimately connected with
each individual's life as bringers of calamities or givers of bountiful
gifts. Each object of daily life has its presiding spirit that must be
consulted and appeased.
All types of Taoism
have in
common the quest for a harmonious, well-ordered universe. They
emphasize the individual's and the group's need for unity through
mysticism, magic, and ceremony.
Top
of page *BUDDHISM
Although Buddhism first
entered China from India
during the Later Han, in the time of Han Ming Ti (AD 58-76), it did not
become popular until the end of the 3rd century. The prevailing
disorders, aggravated by barbarian invasions and the flight of northern
Chinese to the south, heightened the attraction of Buddhism with its
promise of personal salvation, despite its lack of affinity with the
society-oriented thought of the Chinese. Buddhism was founded by
Siddhartha Gautama, the Buddha, a prince of the Sakya kingdom on the
borders of what are now India and Nepal and a contemporary of
Confucius.
Intent on finding relief for human suffering, he received a moment of
enlightenment while meditating under a Bo tree. The Buddha
taught that desires are the source of pain, and that by overcoming
desires, pain can be eliminated. To this end, he advocated meditation
and pursuing the Eightfold Path, similar to the Ten Commandments of
Judaism and Christianity. The objective was to reach Nirvana, the
condition of serenity of spirit, where all cravings, strife, and pain
have been overcome, giving way to a merging of the spirit with eternal
harmony.
At an early stage of its
development, Buddhism
split into two major trends, Mahayana (Greater Vehicle) and Hinayana
(Lesser Vehicle). Hinayana remained closer to the original Buddhism and
is still the religion of the Southeast Asian countries. The Buddhism of
China, Korea, Japan, Nepal, Tibet, and Vietnam,
however, stems largely from Mahayana. Mahayana Buddhism contained more
popular elements, such as belief in repetitive prayers, heaven and
deities--bodhisattvas--who would help people gain salvation. It also
readily adapted to the land and people it converted. In China, it split
into several schools, including Ch'an (Zen in Japan), T'ien-t'ai
(Tendai in Japan), and Pure Land.
Through
his popular book `The Way of Zen' (1957), the British-born American
philosopher Alan Watts introduced Americans to the Zen school of
Buddhism, which has a long tradition of development in China and Japan.
Zen (Ch'an in Chinese) is a Japanese term meaning "meditation." It is a
major school of Japanese Buddhism that claims to transmit the spirit of
Buddhism, or the total enlightenment as achieved by the founder of the
religion, the Buddha (See Buddha; Buddhism).
Zen
has its basis in the conviction that the world and its components are
not many things. They are, rather, one reality. The one is part of a
larger wholeness to which some people assign the name of God. Reason,
by analyzing the diversity of the world, obscures this oneness. It can
be apprehended by the non rational part of the mind--the intuition.
Enlightenment about the nature of reality comes not by rational
examination but through meditation.
Meditation
has been an integral part of Buddhism from the beginning. Nevertheless,
a school of meditation grew up in India and was taken to China by
Bodhidharma about AD 520. When the meditation school arrived in China,
it had a strong foundation on which to build: Taoism, the ancient
Chinese religion (See Taoism). This religion is based on the idea that
there is one underlying reality called the Tao. Taoists, like the
followers of the meditation school, exalted intuition over reason. This
Taoist tradition was easily absorbed by the Chinese meditation school,
the Ch'an.
Within
two centuries the meditation school had divided into two factions:
Northern Ch'an and Southern Ch'an. The northern school, a short-lived
affair, insisted on a doctrine of gradual enlightenment. The southern
school, which became dominant, held to a doctrine of instantaneous
enlightenment.
The southern school evolved
under the
powerful influence of Hui-neng (638-713), who is recognized as the
sixth great patriarch of Zen and the founder of its modern
interpretation. In a sermon recorded as the "Platform Scripture of the
Sixth Patriarch," he taught that all people possess the Buddha
nature and that one's nature (before and after being born) is
originally pure. Instead of undertaking a variety of religious
obligations to seek salvation, one should discover one's own nature.
The traditional way to do this, sitting in meditation, is useless. If
one perceives one's own nature, enlightenment will follow suddenly.
The
goal of adherents of the southern Ch'an is to gain transcendental, or
highest, wisdom from the depths of one's unconscious, where it lies
dormant. Ch'an tries to attain enlightenment without the aid of common
religious observances: study, scriptures, ceremonies, or good deeds.
Reaching the highest wisdom comes as a breakthrough in everyday logical
thought. Followers are urged to find within themselves the answer to
any question raised within because the answer is believed to be found
where the question originates. Training in the methods of meditation
leading to such an enlightenment is best transmitted from master to
disciple.
Ch'an flourished in China
during the T'ang and Sung dynasties (960-1279), and its influences were
strongly felt in literature and painting. Ch'an declined during the
Ming era (1141-1215), when Ch'an masters took up the practice of trying
to harmonize meditation with the study of traditional scriptures.
Meanwhile, sects of Zen had been
transplanted to Japan.
The Rinzai school was taken there in 1191 by the priest Enzai
(1141-1215), and the Soto tradition arrived in 1227, taken there by
Dogen (1200-53), the most revered figure in Japanese Zen. These schools
had their origin in China during the 9th century, when Ch'an divided
into five sects that differed from each other in minor ways.
The
Rinzai sect evolved from the work of Lin-chi (died 866), who was an
exponent of sudden enlightenment. The Soto was founded by Liang-chieh
(died 869) and Pen-chi (died 901). The Soto stressed quiet sitting in
meditation to await enlightenment. A third group, the Obaku, was
established in 1654. The Obaku school is closer to the Rinzai tradition
except for its emphasis on invoking the name of Buddha.
Zen
gained an enthusiastic following among the Samurai warrior class and
became in effect the state religion in the 14th and 15th centuries. In
the 16th century Zen priests were diplomats and administrators, and
they enhanced cultural life as well. Under their influence literature,
art, the cult of the tea ceremony, and the No drama developed.
The
focal point of Zen is the monastery, where masters and pupils interact
in the search for enlightenment. A newcomer arrives at a monastery with
a certificate showing that he is a regularly ordained disciple of a
priest. He is at first refused entry. Finally being admitted, he spends
a few days of probation being interviewed by his master. When he is
accepted he is initiated into the community life of humility, labor,
service, prayer and gratitude, and meditation.
Original
Source Texts
Confucian
and Legalist Texts
- Selections
from the Analects, - topically arranged selections from the
Confucian classic,
- The
Analects, complete, taken from the Internet site at Virginia Tech
- The
Great Learning, complete, taken from internet site at Virginia Tech
- The
Doctrine of the Mean, complete, taken from internet site at Virginia Tech
- Selections
from the Mencius
- Selections
from the Xunzi
- The
Mandate of Heaven, selections from the Shu Jing (The Classic
of History) (c. 6th Century BCE), from James Legge, trans, The
Sacred Books of China: The Texts of Confucianism, in F. Max
Mueller, ed., The Sacred Books of the East, 50
vols., (Oxford: Clarendon, 1879-1910), Vol 3. pp. 92-95, repr. in
Alfred J. Andrea and James H. Overfield, The Human Record:
Sources of Global History, Vol 1, 2d. ed., (Boston: Houghton
Mifflin, 1994), pp. 25-27
- Selections
from The Writings of Han Fei (c. 230 BCE),
from W.L. Liano, trans, The Complete Works of Han Fei Tzu,
(London: Arthur Probsthain, 1939), pp. 40, 45-47 repr. in Alfred J.
Andrea and James H. Overfield, The Human Record: Sources of
Global History, Vol 1, 2d. ed., (Boston: Houghton Mifflin,
1994), pp. 95-97
- Sima
Qian:The Legalist Polices of the Qin, selection from The
Records of the Grand Historian from Yang Hsien-yi and Gladys
Yang, Records of the Historian, (Hong
Kong:Commercial Press, 1974), pp.170-72, 177-78 repr. in Alfred J.
Andrea and James H. Overfield, The Human Record: Sources of
Global History, Vol 1, 2d. ed., (Boston: Houghton Mifflin,
1994), pp. 97-100
Daoist
Texts
- Selection
from the Dao De Jing
- The
Dao De Jing Tao Te Ching, version 1, an
Interpolation by Peter A. Merel (pete@extro.su.oz.au) based upon the
translations of: Lin Yutang, Ch'u Ta-Kao, Gia-Fu Feng & Jane
English, Richard Wilhelm and Aleister Crowley. complete, taken from
internet site {checking reference}
- The
Dao De Jing Tao Te Ching, Tao Te Ching,
version 2, complete, taken from a version on the internet (checking
ref.).
- The
Dao De Jing Tao Te Ching, Tao Te Ching,
version 3, complete, taken from a version by S. Mitchell.
- The
Dao De Jing Tao Te Ching, Tao Te Ching,
version 4, complete by Peter Merel, GNL Version.
- Selections
from the Zhuangzi
Top
of page
Buddhist
texts
- The
Gospel of Buddha, This is a 19th century compilation from a
variety of Buddhist texts by Paul Carus. It is modelled on the New
Testament and was very widely read. It was even recommended by
Ceylonese Buddhist leaders as a teaching tool for Buddhist children.
This version originates from the Internet site at Virginia Tech
- The
Word of Buddha, This compilation is, taken from internet site
at Virginia
Tech
- Buddha:
First Sermon (c. 6th Century BCE), from T.W. Rhys Davids and
Herman Oldenberg, trans, Vinyaya Texts, in F. Max
Mueller, ed., The Sacred Books of the East, 50
vols., (Oxford: Clarendon, 1879-1910), Vol 13. pp. 94-97, 100-102 repr.
in Alfred J. Andrea and James H. Overfield, The Human Record:
Sources of Global History, Vol 1, 2d. ed., (Boston: Houghton
Mifflin, 1994), pp. 72-74
- The
Teaching of Buddha, an early sermon
- the
Dhammapada,
an early Buddhist scripture.
- Buddha's
Sermon on "No-Self" or in HTML
- The
Heart Sutra
- Extract
from the Lotus Sutra on the Nature of the Buddha,
from Edward Conze, ed., Buddhist Texts through the Ages,
(New York: Harper Torchbooks, 1964), pp 142-143, repr in Albert M.
Craig, et al, The Heritage of World Civilizations,
2d ed., (New York: Macmillan, 1990), p. 310
- Extract
from the Lotus Sutra on faith
- the
Legend of Miao-shan
- Chinese
Doctrinal Buddhism, a modern essay on the nature of Chinese
Buddhism.
- Tricycle
Magazine Guide to Basics of Buddhism
- Opposition
to Buddhism: Han Yu: Memorial on Buddhism (819 CE), from
Edwin O. Reischauer, Ennin's Travels in T'ang China,
(New York: Ronald Press, 1955), pp. 221-24 repr. in Alfred J. Andrea
and James H. Overfield, The Human Record: Sources of Global
History, Vol 1, 2d. ed., (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1994),
pp. 187-190
- In
Defense of Buddhism: The Disposition of Error (c. 5th Century CE)
from Paul Thomas Welty, The Asians: Their Heritage and Their
Destiny, (New York: HarperCollins, 1953, 1976), repr. in
Kevin Reilly, Readings in World Civilizations, Vol 1,
2d. ed., (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1994), pp. 165-170
Other
Original
Chinese Texts in Translation
- The
Yi Jing I Ching, This contains just the
core text [sometimes called the Zhou Yi Chou I,
without the 7 [or ten] "wings"].
- Selection
of Chinese Poetry
- Fu
Xuan: Poem on Woman (c, 3rd, Century CE), from Arthur Waley, Chinese
Poems, (New York: 1946), pp 84-85, repr in Albert M. Craig,
et al, The Heritage of World Civilizations, 2d ed.,
(New York: Macmillan, 1990), p. 217
- The
Art of War. This is just the basic text, slightly abbreviated
of Sun Zi's,Sun T'zu's The Art of War
- The
Art of War. Another version of Sun Zi's,Sun T'zu's
The Art of War
- Ban
Zhao Pan Chao: Lessons for A Woman:The Views of A Female Confucian (c.
80 CE), from Nancy Lee Swann, trans, Pan Chao:
Foremost Woman Scholar of China, (New York: Century Co.,
1932), pp. 82-90 repr. in Alfred J. Andrea and James H. Overfield, The
Human Record: Sources of Global History, Vol 1, 2d. ed.,
(Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1994), pp. 148-53
- Sima
Qian: Extracts from Records of the Grand Historian, two
biographies.
- Faxian:
Account of the Buddhistic Kingdoms. A Chinese traveler's
account of the Buddhist kingdoms.
- Chinese
Food - Two Texts, "A Spanish Diplomat Visits China" from J.H.
Parry, ed., The European Reconnaissance, (New York:
Harper & Row, 1968), as excerpted in William J. Duiker and
Jackson J. Speigelvogel, World History,
(Mineapolis/St. Paul: West, 1994), p. 662; and "Using Chopsticks" an
extract from Cao Xueqin, The Dream of the Red Chamber,
from Liu Wu-chi, An Introduction to Chinese Literature,
(Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press, 1966), as excerpted in
Duiker and Speigelvogel, p 665
- The
Homosexual Tradition in China: Selections from Chinese Homosexual
Literature, from Brett Hinsch, Passions of the Cut
Sleeve: The Male Homosexual Tradition in China, (Berkeley and
Los Angeles: University of California Press,1990)
- The
Hai-lu, a Chinese traveler's account of the West in the 18th
century.
- Letter
of Commissioner Lin to Queen Victoria, a Letter by the
Chinese official whose efforts to abolish British drug running led to
the disasterous Opium War.
- Sun
Yat-sen: Fundamentals of National Reconstruction (1923 CE),
from Sun Yat-sen, Fundamentals of National Reconstruction,
(Taipei: China Cultura; Service, 1953), pp. 76-83, as excerpted in Mark
A. Kishlansky, Sources of World History, Vol 2 (New
York: HarperCollins, 1995), p. 281-285
- Luxun
Lu Hsun: Two
Selections from His Writing
- Modern
Marriage in China - Two Texts, from China Youth
Daily, "The Correct Viewpoint Towards Marriage" from F.
Schurmann and O. Schnell. eds., Communist China,
(New York: Random House, 1966, 1967) as excerpted in William J. Duiker
and Jackson J. Speigelvogel, World History,
(Minneapolis/St. Paul: West, 1994), p. 1115; and Tani E. Barlow and
Donald M. Lowe, Teaching China's Lost Generations,
(San Francisco: China Books, 1987),as excerpted in Duiker and
Speigelvogel, , p. 1118
Top
of page
Other
Sources for
the Study of Chinese Culture
- Andrew
L. March, "Myth
of Asia", in The Idea of China, (New
York: Preager, 1974), 23-43, 61-67
- Marco
Polo, Selection
from The Travels of Marco Polo
- Matteo
Ricci, The Art of Printing, from The Diary of
Matthew Ricci, as excerpted in William J. Duiker and Jackson
J. Speigelvogel, World History, (Minneapolis/St.
Paul: West, 1994), p. 652
- Matteo
Ricci, Selection from his Journals (1583-1610 CE), from The
Diary of Matthew Ricci, in Matthew Ricci, China in
the Sixteenth Century, trans Louis Gallagher, (New York:
Random House, 1942, 1970), as excerpted in Mark A. Kishlansky, Sources
of World History, Vol 1, (New York: HarperCollins, 1995), p.
269-273
- Paul
Kennedy, The
Rise and Fall of Great Powers, (New York: Random
House, 1987), pp. 3-30 excerpts
- Lynda
Shaffer, China,
Technology and Change, World History Bulletin,
4:1
- Recent
American Press Worries about Chinese Power
- Four
Recent Press Reports on Gay Life in China
- Women
in China: Press Reports
- Tom
Hilditch, A Holocaust of Girls, from the South
China Morning Post (Hong Kong), repr. in World
Press Review, September 1995, p. 39
- NY
Times Report on Recent UN Women's Conference
- Mary
M. Anderson, Hidden
Power: The Palace Eunuchs of Imperial China,
(Buffalo NY: Prometheus, 1990), 15-18, 307-11
- Death
of China's Last Eunuch, New York Times,
December 1996,
Basic
Guides to Chinese Culture
These are links to the at www.religiousworlds.com
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Taoism
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