By Professor Wu Heng, translated by Harold L.K. Siu, Chinese
Art (Taipei: Youth Cultural Enterprises Co., Ltd., 1985).
Introduction
The origin of Chinese writing can be traced back to ancient
China, although we are not certain of the date of its invention. According
to reliable reference books, Chinese writing has at least a history of
four thousand years. It is generally believed that people made records
by tying a knot in a rope. This way of recording was replaced by the invention
of words by Tsang Chie.
We cannot assume that there were no written words before
Tsang Chie. Tsang only combined the invented words of his predecessors
with slight changes. At the same time, there was still another inventor
called Chu Sung.
Nonetheless, the fact that Chinese written words originated
in painting is beyond doubt. That is why modern Chinese consider writing
and painting to have the same origin.
Meanwhile, the invention of words represents the insufficiency
of spoken language. As an instrument, they describe and keep various events
and have meanings. Words precede writing; they are the mother of writing.
Because of the passing of time, the evolution of human culture, and the
needs of daily life, the writing style evolved from easy to complex.
Top of page
Briefing the Origin and Evolution
of Chinese Writing Style
China had Oracle-Bone Inscriptions in the Shang Dynasty
(1766-1122 B.C.), then Big Seal Script in the Chou Dynasty ( 1122-221
BC). It is believed that Big Seal Script was created by one of the ranking
officials in the Chou Dynasty while studying history ("chun"),
so the writing style is also called Chun Writing. In the Chin Dynasty
(221-206 BC), there came Small Seal Script. Although it was originally
created by Premier Lee Ssu and historians Chao Kao and Hu Mu-chin through
three separate pieces of writings, people generally refer to it as the
"Writing of Lee".
In the Han Dynasty ( 206 B.C.-221A.D.), the Old Li Writing
emerged. It was originally created by a calligrapher-turned-prisoner named
Cheng Miao. Only during the following Wei (221-265 A.D.) and Jin (265-420
AD) dynasties did the Modern Li Writing emerge. It was also during this
period of time that Free Writing (Tsao Shu) and Block Writing (Kai Shu
or Text Characters) emerged. Although Block Writing was originally created
by a person named Wang Tzu-chung in Peiping (today's Beijing), its system
was not completed until Chung Yiao, a famous calligrapher, in the Wei
Dynasty.
During the Five Dynasties period (907-959 AD), Running Characters
(Hsing Shu) was created by a famous calligrapher from the Later Han Dynasty
(947-950 AD). It has had little variation from then on.
The following is a more detailed introduction regarding
the evolution of Chinese writing style.
1. Oracle-Bone Inscriptions
At the dawn of Chinese civilization, people were primitive
and ignorant. They were very superstitious and wondered at everything
in the universe. Before they acted on anything, they would consult fortunetellers.
As spoken language was insufficient, words were invented and engraved
with sharp objects on the back of tortoise shells and the bones of beasts,
so that what happened before and after the consultancy could be recorded.
In the Ching Dynasty (1644-1911A.D.), some of these ancient
shells and bones were dug up accidentally by farmers in Hunan Province.
Unaware of their importance, these farmers mistook them for medicine and
had them sold. It is fortunate that a scholar named Liu Eh (Liu Tie-yun)
eventually came to regard them as precious relics of our ancestors. Gradually,
this discovery was made known all over the country. Through the research
of scholars such as Wang Kao-wei, Lo Cheng-yu and Sun Yi-rang, these oracle-bone
inscriptions were proved to be the language of the Shang Dynasty. Since
they were dug up in the ruin of the Shang (or Yin) Dynasty, people also
refer to them as the Yin Writing. Their writing style is regarded as the
earliest one in Chinese history.
2. Writing on Bells and Containers
This kind of writing is usually engraved on metal and bronze
bells, which is why it is also called "Metal Writing" or "Old
Writing". It has its own style, which is slightly different from
that of Small Seal Script. Thus the two representative writing styles
at the Shang and Chou dynasties are Oracle-Bone Inscriptions and Bell
Writing respectively. The purpose of the former style was to record events;
most of its writings were concerned with the prophecies of fortunetellers.
The latter style was used for worshiping, therefore had a sense of beauty
involved. Supporting evidences of this can be found in the National Palace
Museum, Taipei, where many ancient vessels, containers, jade and various
kinds of antiquity are well preserved.
Top of page
3. Chun Writing and Stone and Drum
Writing
One of the ranking officials of the Chou Dynasty created
the Chun Writing while studying history. At that time, every word had
several forms and several pronunciations. The official unified these variations
and thus contributed greatly to the unification of Chinese writing style.
Only until the Chin Dynasty was the Chun Writing called Big Seal Script.
Stone and Drum Writing (Chun Writing engraved on stones
that shaped like drums) spread over the country and is still used even
today. Its content is primarily concerned with god-worshiping.
4. Small Seal Script (Writing of
Lee, or Chin Writing)
Lee Ssu (Premier of the Chin Dynasty), Chao Kao and Hu Mu-chin
adopted Big Seal Script and changed it into Small Seal Script after the
unification of the six warring states by the dynasty's first emperor,
Chin Shih-huang. Because the languages of these six states varied in form
and pronunciation, the emperor ordered the "standardization of language".
Hence came Small Seal Script, the product of this order.
This is the second reform in the unification of Chinese
writing style. It was not only a contribution to Chinese writing style
but also a promotion of close relationship between different peoples.
The area of China is immense, thus the unification of language could save
the nation from splitting up.
5. Li Writing
Li Writing is the current style of Chinese writing. At the
beginning of the Chin Dynasty, people were in favor of (Small) Seal Script,
but it was hard to write. Then there came a famous calligrapher named
Cheng Miao, who was put in prison due to some false charges. He recalled
that when he served as a government official, administrative affairs were
often complicated enough, not to mention the difficulty of dealing with
them in Seal Script style. He therefore decided to reform it. After years
of research, he finished amending three thousand words and effected the
birth of Li Writing (the character "li" refers to slaves or
prisoners). It is a style that is much more convenient to use.
This is the third reform in Chinese writing style. People
promoted this improvement, and the style became popular throughout the
nation. Its convenience in using saved a lot of precious time for generations
to come.
6. Block Writing (Kai Shu, or Text
Characters)
Block Writing is also called Real Writing or Formal Writing.
At the beginning of the Han Dynasty, Wang Tze-chung formalized Li Writing
and made it distinctive from other styles. This is the fourth revolution
in Chinese writing style. Due to its convenience most people adopted it.
In the Wei and Jin dynasties, a calligrapher named Chung
Yiao advocated Wang's formalized Li Writing. Chung's "Congratulation
Report" is widely known. His writing style was further developed
and adopted throughout the nation, and has become the mother of today's
Block Writing. This is the fifth reform in Chinese writing style.
7. Running Characters (Hsing Shu)
According to historical sources, Running Characters were
initiated by Liu Teh-sheng of the Later Han Dynasty. This writing style
is somewhere between Block Writing and Free Writing. It is called Hsing
Shu because it resembles the walking of a person (the character "hsing"
means walking). It is very convenient to use.
Top of page
8. Free Writing (Tsao Shu)
Free writing, according to some scholars, was originally
created by Shih Yiou of the Han Dynasty. He created it because he was
in a hurry of writing something. Other scholars, however, are convinced
that Free Writing was created in an even earlier period of time. A kind
of ancient script written with brushes made of grass, for example, was
believed to be the origin of the writing style.
Scholars throughout Chinese history had different views
in this. For instance, Hu Shen said: "Free Writing arose during the
prosperity of the Han Dynasty." Tsai Yung remarked: "During
the power struggle among different provinces in the Chin Dynasty, messages
and letters were exchanged promptly. The difficult (Small) Seal Script
could hardly meet the urgent needs in battles. The writing style created
on the spur of the moment then is what we call Free Writing now."
Furthermore, while Chiang Shih questioned "Who knows the origin of
Free Writing?", Wei Heng reported that "I know not the name
of the (original) writer". Therefore, the invention and origin of
Free Writing is still a matter of controversy.
In sum, most scholars seem to have agreed that Free Writing
is a sort of draft writing. The fact that this writing style was inspired
by daily (and often urgent) necessities is beyond doubt. Two calligraphers
of the Han Dynasty, Tsui Yuan and Tu Du, were good at Free Writing. Because
of the then emperor's fondness and praise, this writing style became popular
and was practiced by all social classes. The emperor even made it an official
writing style.
There is another kind of Free Writing, which was initiated
by Chang Chih, a calligrapher of the Eastern Han Dynasty. His strokes
go right to the end with only occasional breaks, which is what is referred
to today as "broken stroke with continuous meaning". It is also
called Modern Free Writing.
During the Wei and Jin dynasties, Wang Hsi-chih and his
son Wang Hsien-chih, together with other calligraphers such as Huang Hsiang
and Sou Ching, excelled in Free Writing. They were famous at the time
and throughout the history, and their time was the golden age of this
writing style.
In the Tang Dynasty, Chang Hsu (also known as Chang Po-kao)
was an expert in Free Writing. His writing was unrestrained and graceful,
allowing him to give vent to his pent-up feelings and energy. His resolve
was lofty, and he sought to transcend the mundane. He especially loved
to drink; when ever he became drunk, he shouted wildly and so indulged
in writing that he was reported to have blackened the water in a pond
from much practice. According to one source, the so-called "Wild
Free Writing" got its name because of Chang. He was therefore named
the "Sage of Free Writing" by scholars of coming generations.
In Chang's time, Huai Su, a monk, was also a great calligrapher
in Free Writing.
9. Standard Free Writing
Standard Free Writing was created by Yu Yo-ren, the late
President of Republic of China's Control Yuan. He collected and examined
through works of famous Free Writing calligraphers throughout the history,
and eventually established a complete system that standardizes and unifies
all writings in the style. He also created many new words and symbols
for the style.
Yu set up four guiding principles in creating and appreciating
works of Free Writing. Namely, the words have to be easy to recognize,
easy to write, accurate and beautiful. Following these principles, Yu
created numerous wonderful works in the hope of making calligraphy in
general a popular art for everyone to enjoy. He also expected his system
to save time and energy for generations to come. This is the sixth reform
in Chinese writing style. It is hoped that people who are interested in
this field may advance and improve his work.
Top of pageConclusion
In conclusion, the origin and evolution of Chinese writing
style can be summarized into the following points:
In
its long history of scriptural evolution and refinement, Chinese
calligraphy was practiced within a strict framework and governed by
restrictive rules. What has been discussed here is the general
knowledge of its
disciplines for non-Chinese readers rather than a teaching guide for
beginners.
For beginners, one-one-one
direction is essential
as in any other forms of visual art. Anyone who teaches himself may
technically walk into a wrong course and the mistake may be hard to
correct later.
The training of Chinese calligraphy always begins with copying a model.
Through the lengthy annals of Chinese calligraphy, master calligraphers
set fascinating examples in its disciplines and the expressions,
lending a shoulder for later generation to start. To copy from a model
is focused on stroke patterns - the structure of characters and the
execution of brushwork. The technique of master calligraphers varies
from style to style; however, understanding one style will shed light
on others.
There was only hard hair brush in
ancient China, and
papers were generally sized to prevent bleeding. The common brushes for
Chinese calligraphy today are combined with goat hair, and the paper
popular with beginners is semi-absorbent rice paper. Calligraphers
usually don't change their choices often once they find something
fitting.
